Isaac Newton ( Great Scientist )

Sir Isaac Newton is a great Scientist in the History. He found The Universal Law of Gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton is a great Scientist for all time. Sir Isaac Newton Kt, PRS (/ njuːtən / December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1726-1727) was an English physicist and mathematician (described at the time as a "natural philosopher"), which is widely recognized as one of the scientists most influential of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.

Principia of Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated view of the physical universe of scientists for the next three centuries. By deriving the laws of planetary motion Kepler his mathematical description of gravity, then using the same principles to account for the paths of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton eliminated the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the solar system. This work also showed that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. His prediction that the Earth must be in the form of an oblate spheroid was later claimed by measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others who helped convince most continental European scientists of the superiority of the mechanics of Newton the previous system of Descartes.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the various colors of the visible spectrum. He formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. Besides his work in the calculation, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, I generalized binomial theorem for non-integer exponent, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and most cubic plane curves is classified.

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian professor at Cambridge University. He was a devout Christian, but unorthodox and unusual for a member of the faculty of Cambridge the day way, refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, perhaps because rejected privately doctrine of the Trinity . Beyond his work in mathematical science, Newton spent much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy, but most of their work in these areas remained unpublished until long after his death. In his later life, Newton became president of the Royal Society. Newton served the British government as Guardian and Master of the Royal Mint.

Universal Law of Gravitation

There is a popular story that Newton was sitting under an apple tree, an apple fell on his head, and suddenly thought of the universal law of gravitation. As this is in all these legends, almost certainly not in detail, but the story contains elements of what actually happened.

What Really Happened with the Apple?

Probably the most correct version of the story is that Newton, observing an apple fall from a tree, began to think about the following terms: the apple is accelerated, as their speed changes from scratch, as it is hanging on the tree and moves toward the ground. Therefore, by Newton's second law has to be a force acting on the block to make this acceleration. Let's call this force "gravity", and acceleration associated with the "acceleration of gravity". Then you imagine the apple is twice as high. Again, we expect the apple to accelerate toward the ground, so this suggests that this force we call gravity reaches the top of the apple tree top.

Sir Isaac's Most Excellent Idea

Now it's really bright vision of Newton: if the force of gravity reaches the top of the tallest tree, I could not go further; in particular, it could not reach all the way to the orbit of the Moon! Then, the orbit of the Moon around the Earth could be a consequence of the force of gravity, because the acceleration of gravity could change the speed of the Moon in just such a way that followed an orbit around the earth.

This can be illustrated by the experiment shown in the following figure. Suppose you shoot a cannon horizontally from a high mountain; the projectile will ultimately fall to the ground, as indicated by the shortest path in the figure, due to the gravitational force directed toward the center of the Earth and the associated acceleration. (Remember that acceleration is a change of speed and velocity is a vector, so it has a magnitude and a direction. Thus, an acceleration occurs if one or both the magnitude and direction of change of speed).

But as output increases the speed of our imaginary guns, the projectile will travel more and more before returning to earth. Finally, Newton reasoned that if the barrel projects the cannonball with exactly the right speed, the projectile would travel completely around the earth, always falls in the gravitational field, but never reaches the Earth, curving away to the same speed the projectile falls. That is, the cannonball would have been placed in orbit around the Earth. Newton concluded that the orbit of the Moon was exactly the same nature: continuous Moon "fell" in its path around the Earth due to the acceleration of gravity, producing its orbit.

By such reasoning, Newton concluded that any two objects in the universe exert gravitational attraction on the other, with the force that has a universal form:

The constant of proportionality G is known as the gravitational constant. It is called a "universal constant" as it is thought to be the same in all places and all times, and therefore universally characterized the intrinsic strength of the gravitational force.

The Center of Mass for a Binary System

If you think about it for a moment, it may seem a little strange that Kepler's laws del Sol is set at a point in space and the planet revolves around it. Why the Sun is privileged? Kepler had more mystical ideas about the Sun, ending with godlike qualities that justified their special place. However Newton, largely as a corollary of his third law showed that the factual situation was more symmetrical than Kepler imagined and that the sun does not occupy a privileged position; in the process Kepler's 3rd Law is changed.

Consider the diagram shown on the right. We can define a point called the center of mass between two objects through the equations.

                                                                  

where R is the total separation between the centers of the two objects. The center of mass is familiar to anyone who has played on a seesaw. The fulcrum on which the seesaw balance exactly two people sitting at each end is the center of mass for the two people sitting on the seesaw.

Here is a center mass calculator that will help you make and visualize the calculations of the center of mass. (Caution: This applet is written in Java 1.1 language, which is only compatible with existing browsers should work on Windows systems with Netscape 4.06 or the latest version of Internet Explorer 4.0, but can not run on Mac or Unix systems or browsers. Windows above).

Newton's Modification of Kepler's Third Law

Because for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, Newton realized that the planet-sun planet system is not in orbit around a stationary Sun Instead, Newton proposed that both the planet and the sun orbited around the common center of mass for the planet-Sun system. Then the third Kepler law is modified to read,

where P is the planetary orbital period and the other variables are as described above, with the Sun as a planet mass and the other mass. (As in the previous discussion of the Law 3rd Kepler, this form of the equation assumes that the masses are measured in solar masses, times years from Earth, and distances in astronomical units.) Note the symmetry this equation because the masses the left side are added and the distances are added on the right side, it does not matter if the sun is marked with 1 and 2 with the planet, or vice versa. the same result is obtained in both cases.

Now notice what happens in the new equation of Newton, if one of the masses (either 1 or 2; remember symmetry) is very large compared to the other. In particular, suppose that the sun is labeled mass 1 and its mass is much greater than the mass of any of the planets. Then the sum of the two masses is always approximately equal to the mass of the sun, and if we proportions of Law 3rd Kepler for two different planets to the masses cancel from the relationship and stayed with the original form of the 3rd law Kepler:

So Kepler's third law is approximately valid because the Sun is much more massive than any of the planets and therefore Newton correction is small. Kepler data accessed was not good enough to show this small effect. However, the detailed observations made after Kepler show that the modified form of Newton's third law of Kepler is in better agreement with the data than the original form of Kepler.

Two Limiting Cases

We can gain a greater understanding considering the position of the center of mass in two limits. Consider first the example just discussed, where a mass is much bigger than the other. So we see that the center of mass of the system essentially coincides with the center of mass object:

This is the situation in the solar system: the Sun is so large compared to any of the planets that the center of mass of a pair of Sun-planet is always very close to the center of the Sun Therefore, for all practical purposes the sun is almost (but not quite) motionless in the center of mass of the system, as Kepler originally thought.

But now consider another limiting case where the two masses are equal. Then it is easy to see that the center of gravity is equidistant from the two masses and if they are gravitationally bound together, each mass orbit around the common center of mass for the system lying halfway between them:

This situation commonly occurs with binary star (two stars gravitationally bound to each other so that revolve around their common center of mass). In many binary star systems the masses of the two stars are similar and correction of Newton 3rd Law Kepler is very large.

Here is a Java applet that implements a modified form of Newton's third law of Kepler for the two objects (planets or stars) that revolve around their common center of mass. By making a much larger mass than the other in this interactive animation you can illustrate the ideas discussed above and recover the original form of Kepler's third law, when a less massive object seems to revolve around a massive object set in one of the foci of an ellipse.

These limiting cases the location of the center of mass are perhaps familiar with our aforementioned playground experience. If people are of equal weight in a seesaw, the fulcrum should be placed in the middle for balance, but if a person weighs more than the other person, the fulcrum is placed near the heavier person to achieve balance.

Here is a calculator Kepler's laws which allows you to make simple calculations for periods, separations, and the masses of the Kepler laws' modified by Newton (see next section) to include the effect of the mass center. (Caution: This applet is written in Java 1.1 language, which is only compatible with existing browsers should work on Windows systems with Netscape 4.06 or the latest version of Internet Explorer 4.0, but can not run on Mac or Unix systems or browsers. Windows above).

Weight and the Gravitational Force

We have seen that in the Law of Universal Gravitation of the amount of mass is essential. In popular parlance mass and weight are often used to mean the same thing; actually are related but different things. What we commonly call weight is really only the gravitational force exerted on an object of a certain mass. We can illustrate by choosing Earth as one of the two masses in the above illustration of the law of gravitation:

Therefore, the weight of an object of mass m in the surface of the earth is obtained by multiplying the mass m by the acceleration of gravity, g, on the surface of the Earth. The acceleration of gravity is approximately the product of the universal gravitational constant G and the mass of the Earth M divided by the radius of the Earth, r squared. (We assume that the earth is spherical and the abandonment of the radius of the object relative to the radius of the Earth in this discussion.) The acceleration of gravity measured on the surface of the Earth is at about 980 cm / second / second.

Mass and Weight

The mass is a measure of the amount of material is on an object, but the weight is a measure of the force of gravity exerted on the material in a gravitational field; therefore, the mass and weight are proportional to each other, with the acceleration due to gravity as the proportionality constant. It follows that the mass is constant for an object (actually this is not entirely true, but we'll save that surprise for our later discussion of the theory of relativity), but the weight depends on the location of the object. For example, if we transport the above object of the mass m of the surface of the Moon, the acceleration of gravity would change because the radius and mass of the Moon, both differ from those on Earth. Therefore, our object has mass m both on the surface of the Earth and on the surface of the moon, but weigh much less on the surface of the moon because the acceleration of gravity is not a factor of 6 less than in the surface of the earth.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal ( Great thinker of Pakistan )

Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal is a great thinker of Pakistan. He play a important roll in the History of Pakistan. Allama Muhammad Iqbal is National Hero of Pakistan. Sir Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu: محمد اقبال) (November 9, 1877 to April 21 1938), widely known as Allama Iqbal (علامہ اقبال) was a poet, philosopher and politician, as well as an academic, lawyer and academic in British India, which it is widely considered to have inspired the Pakistan movement. He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature with literary works, both in Urdu and Persian languages.

Iqbal is admired as an outstanding poet by Pakistanis, Indians, Bangladeshis, Sri Lanka and other scholars of international literature. Though Iqbal is best known as an eminent poet, he is also a "Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times" acclaimed. His first book of poems, Asrar-e-Khudi, appeared in the Persian language in 1915, and other books of poetry include Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, Payam-i-Mashriq and Zabur-i-Ajam. Among these his best known works are Urdu Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim and part of Armughan-e-Hijaz. Along with his Urdu and Persian poetry, lectures and Urdu and English letters have been very influential in the cultural, social, religious and political conflicts.

In 1922, he was knighted by King George V, giving it the title "Sir". While studying law and philosophy in England, Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the Muslim League All India. Later, during December session of the League of 1930, he delivered his most famous presidential speech known as the Directorate of Allahabad in which he promoted the creation of a Muslim state in northwest India.

In much of South Asia and the world speaks Urdu, Iqbal is regarded as Shair-e-Mashriq (Urdu: شاعر مشرق, "Poet of the East"). Also it called Mufakkir-e-Pakistan (Urdu: مفکر پاکستان, "The Thinker of Pakistan"), Musawar-e-Pakistan (Urdu: مصور پاکستان, "Artist of Pakistan") and Hakeem-ul-Ummat (Urdu: حکیم الامت , "the Sage of Ummah"). The Pakistani government officially named a "national poet". His birthday Yom-e Welādat-e Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu: یوم ولادت محمد اقبال), or the day of Iqbal, is a holiday in Pakistan. India is also remembered as the author of the popular song Saare Jahaan is Achcha.

Personal life

Background

Iqbal was born on November 9, 1877 in Sialkot in Punjab province of British India (now in Pakistan). His grandparents were Kashmiri Pandits, the Brahmins of Kashmir Sapru clan who converted to Islam. In the 19th century, when the Sikh Empire was conquered Kashmir, the family of his grandfather migrated to Punjab. Iqbal often mentioned and commemorated his lineage Kashmiri Pandit Brahmin in his writings.

Iqbal's father, Sheikh Muhammad Noor (died 1930), was a tailor, not formally educated but a religious man. The mother of Iqbal Imam Bibi was a polite and humble woman who helped the poor and solves the problems of the residents. He died on November 9, 1914 in Sialkot. Iqbal loved his mother, and his death expressed his feelings of pathos in a poetic elegy form.

Who would anxiously wait for me at my place of origin?

Who would show concern if my letter does not arrive?

I'll visit your grave with this complaint:

Now will think of me in praying midnight?

All your love to your life helps me with devotion-

When I became fit to serve you, they have departed.

Iqbal was four years old when he was admitted to the mosque to learn the Koran. He learned Arabic from his teacher Syed Hassan Mir, the head of the madrassa and professor of Arabic at the University of the Scotch mission in Sialkot, where he enrolled in 1893. He received intermediate with the Faculty of Arts diploma Murray Sialkot College in 1895. the same year he enrolled at Government College Lahore, where he earned a degree in philosophy, English literature and Arabic in 1897, and won the FS Bahadurddin Jalaluddin Khan medal by taking the highest numbers in the Arabic class. In 1899, he received his Master of Arts from the same university and had the first place in the University of Punjab, Lahore.

Iqbal was married three times, in 1895, while studying BA had his first marriage to Karim Bibi, daughter of medical Khan Bahadur Khan Muhammad Ata (the maternal grandfather of the director and music composer Khwaja Khurshid Anwar) through an arranged marriage . Daughter and son had Aftab Iqbal Begum Miraj. Later, the second marriage was with Sardar Iqbal Begum mother Javid Iqbal, and his third marriage was with Mukhtar Begum in December 1914.

Higher education in Europe

Iqbal was influenced by the teachings of Sir Thomas Arnold, his professor of philosophy at the University of Lahore Government. Arnold teachings of Iqbal determined to pursue higher education in the West, and in 1905 traveled to England for that purpose. Iqbal qualified for a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge University and obtained Bachelor of Arts in 1906 and in the same year he was called to the bar as a lawyer from Lincoln's Inn. In 1907, Iqbal moved to Germany to continue his doctoral studies and earned a degree from the Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Ph.D. in 1908. Under the direction of Friedrich Hommel, Iqbal doctoral thesis entitled Developing metaphysics in Persia was published.

During the stay of Iqbal in Heidelberg in 1907 Wegenast his German teacher Emma taught him about Goethe's Faust, Heine and Nietzsche. During his studies in Europe, Iqbal began writing poetry in Persian. Priority was given because he believed he had found an easy way to express their thoughts. He writes in Persian continuously throughout his life.

Academic

Iqbal, after completing his degree of Master of Arts in 1899, began his career as a reader of Arabic at Oriental College and soon after was selected as a high school teacher of philosophy at Government College Lahore, where he also he had studied in the past. There he worked until he went to England in 1905. In 1908, he returned to England and joined the same college again as professor of philosophy and English literature. In the same period Iqbal began practicing law in Lahore High Court Chief, but soon abandoned the practice of law and devoted himself to literary works, becoming an active member of Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam. In 1919, he became the secretary general of the organization. thoughts of Iqbal in his work mainly focus on the management and development of human spiritual society, centered around the experiences of traveling to and staying in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was deeply influenced by Western philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Bergson and Goethe.

Poetry and philosophy of Mawlana Rumi bore the deepest influence on Iqbal's mind. Deeply based on religion since childhood, Iqbal began concentrating intensely on the study of Islam, culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, while embracing Rumi as "your guide". Iqbal Rumi would have the lead role in many of his poems. Iqbal works focus on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization, and deliver the message of a pure, spiritual approach to Islam as a source of social and political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and among Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community or Ummah.

The poetry of Iqbal has been translated into many European languages, at the time his work was famous during the early part of the 20th century Iqbal Asrar-i-Khudi and Javed Nama were translated into English by AR and AJ Nicholson Arberry respectively .

Iqbal, Jinnah and concept of Pakistan

Ideologically separated from Muslim leaders Congress, Iqbal had also disillusioned with politicians from the Muslim League because of the factional conflict that affected the League in the 1920s Dissatisfaction with faction leaders like Muhammad Shafi and Fazl-ur Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only a political leader Jinnah was able to preserve the unity and the achievement of the objectives of the Muslim League political empowerment. The construction of a personal, strong correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was an influential force in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, back to India and take over the League. Iqbal firmly believe that Jinnah was the only leader able to attract Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and Congress:

I know you're a busy man but I hope you do not mind what I write to you often, because it is the only Muslim in India today to the right of the community have to look up for safe guidance through the storm that is coming to northwestern India and perhaps for the whole of India.

While Iqbal embraced the idea of ​​Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians posit that Jinnah always maintains the hope of a according to the Congress and never completely desired partition of India. Iqbal close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for embrace of the idea of ​​Pakistan Jinnah. Jinnah Iqbal elucidated his vision of an independent Muslim state in a letter sent on June 21, 1937:

A separate federation of Muslim provinces, renovated in the lines I suggested above, is the only way by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of northwestern India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside India are.

Iqbal, who acts as president of the Muslim League Punjab, criticized the political actions of Jinnah, including a political agreement with the leader of the Punjabi Sir Sikandar Hyat Khan, who Iqbal saw as representative of the feudal classes and not committed to Islam as the central political philosophy. However, Iqbal worked constantly to encourage Muslim leaders and masses to support Jinnah and the League. Speaking about the political future of Muslims in India, Iqbal said:

There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They must join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being resolved, can be countered by our united against both Hindus and the English front. Without it, our demands will not be accepted. People say that our demands smack of communalism. This is pure propaganda. These demands relate to the defense of our national existence .... The united front may be formed under the leadership of the Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only because of Jinnah. Now none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims.

Final years and death

In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal was suffering from a mysterious illness throat. He spent his last years helping Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan to establish the Institute ul Islam Trust Give Jamalpur estate near Pathankot, where there were plans to subsidize studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science. He also called for an independent Muslim state.

Iqbal ceased practicing law in 1934 and was granted a pension by the Nawab of Bhopal. In his later years, he often visited the famous Dargah of Sufi Hazrat Ali Hajveri in Lahore spiritual guide. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore on April 21, 1938. His grave is in Hazuri Bagh, enclosed garden between the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and Lahore Fort, and guards officers are provided by the Government of Pakistan.

Iqbal is widely celebrated in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. His Tarana-e-Hind is a song that is widely used in India as a patriotic song speaks of communal harmony. His birthday is commemorated annually in Pakistan as Iqbal day, a national holiday. Iqbal is the namesake of many public institutions, including the University of Allama Iqbal Campus of Punjab in Lahore, Medical College Allama Iqbal in Lahore, Stadium Iqbal Faisalabad, Allama Iqbal Open University in Pakistan, the international airport Allama Iqbal in Lahore the Allama Iqbal Hall in Nishtar Medical College Multan, Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town in Karachi, Lahore Allama Iqbal Town and Allama Iqbal Hall in Aligarh Muslim University in India.

The government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of educational institutions, colleges and schools dedicated to Iqbal, and have established the Iqbal Academy Pakistan to investigate, teach and preserve his work, literature and philosophy. Allama Iqbal Seals Society was established to promote Iqbaliyat in philately and other hobbies. His son Javid Iqbal has served as a judge in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Javaid Manzil was the last residence of Iqbal.

Nelson Mandela ( Great Man )

Nelson Mandela was a great man. Nelson Mandela become first black president of South Africa in 1994 to 1999. Nelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918 in Mvezo, Transkei, South Africa. actively involved in the anti-apartheid 20 years, movement Mandela joined the African National Congress in 1942. For 20 years, led a campaign of peaceful defiance, nonviolent against the South African government and its racist policies. In 1993, Mandela and South African President F. W. de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to dismantle apartheid system in the country. In 1994, Mandela was inaugurated as the first black president of South Africa. In 2009, Mandela's birthday (July 18) was declared "Mandela Day" to promote world peace and celebrate the legacy of South African leader. Mandela died at his home in Johannesburg on December 5, 2013, at age 95.

Early Life

Nelson Mandela was born Rolihlahla Mandela on July 18, 1918, in the small village of Mvezo, on the banks of the Mbashe River in Transkei, South Africa. "Rolihlahla" in the Xhosa language literally means "pulling the branch of a tree," but more commonly translated as "disturbing".

Nelson Mandela's father, who was destined to be a leader, served as counselor tribal chiefs for several years, but lost his title and fortune in a dispute with the local colonial magistrate. Mandela was just a baby at the time, and the loss of his father's condition forced his mother to move the family to Qunu, a village even smaller north of Mvezo. The village lies in a narrow valley; there were no roads, only footpaths linking the pastures where cattle grazed. The family lived in huts and a local harvest of corn, sorghum, squash and beans, that was all they could afford ate. The water comes from springs and streams and the cooking is done outdoors. Mandela played games young boys, male scenarios representing rights-of-way with toys made from natural materials available, including tree branches and clay.

At the suggestion of one of his father's friends, Mandela was baptized in the Methodist Church. He became the first in his family to attend school. As it was customary at the time, and probably due to the burden of the British education system in South Africa, Mandela's teacher told him his new name would be Nelson.

When Mandela was 9 years old, his father died of lung disease, causing your life to change drastically. It was adopted by the head Jongintaba Dalindyebo, the acting regent of the Thembu people-a gesture done as a favor to Mandela's father, who, years earlier, had recommended Jongintaba becoming head. Mandela subsequently left the carefree life he knew in Qunu, fearing that he would never see his people again. He traveled by car to Mqhekezweni, the provincial capital of Thembuland to actual residence of the head. Although he had not forgotten his beloved village of Qunu, he quickly adapted to the new, more sophisticated environment Mqhekezweni.

Mandela was given the same status and responsibilities as two other sons of the ruler, his son and his eldest daughter, justice and Nomafu daughter. Mandela took classes at a school in one room next to the palace, studying English, Xhosa, history and geography. It was during this period that Mandela developed an interest in the history of Africa from senior chiefs who attended the grand palace on secondment. He learned Africans had lived in relative peace until the arrival of whites. According to the elders, the children of South Africa had previously lived as brothers, but white men had shattered this communion. While black men shared their land, air and water with whites, whites took all these things for themselves.

When Mandela was 16, it was time participating in the traditional ritual of circumcision in Africa for their entry into adulthood. The circumcision ceremony was nothing but a surgical procedure, but an elaborate ritual in preparation for adulthood. In the African tradition, a man uncircumcised can not inherit the fortune of his father, marry or officiate in tribal rituals. Mandela attended the ceremony with 25 other children. He welcomed the opportunity to participate in the customs of his people and felt ready to make the transition from childhood to adulthood. His mood changed the course of the procedure, however, when the Chief Meligqili, the keynote speaker at the ceremony, spoke sadly of the young men, explaining that they were enslaved in their own country. Because of their land by the white man, they would never have the power to govern themselves, he said the head was controlled. He went on to lament that the promise of young men wasted while trying to earn a living and to perform meaningless tasks for white men. Mandela would later say that while the words of the chief had no overall sense of him at the time, eventually would make its determination for an independent South Africa.

From the moment Mandela was under the tutelage of Regent Jongintaba, I was prepared to assume high office, not a boss, but an advisory one. As Thembu rights, Mandela attended a Wesleyan mission school, the Institute Clarkebury boarding and Wesleyan College, where, later state, achieved academic success through "hard work unformatted." He also excelled in track and boxing. Mandela was initially mocked as a "country boy" by his fellow Wesley, but eventually became friends with several students, including Mathona, his first friend.

In 1939, Mandela enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare, the only residential center of higher education for blacks in South Africa at the time. Fort Hare was considered equivalent to the University of Oxford and Harvard University in Africa, drawing scholars from all over sub-Saharan Africa. In his first year at university, Mandela took the required courses, but focused on Roman Dutch law to prepare for a career in public service as an interpreter or secretary-considered the best profession a black man could get at the time .

In his second year at Fort Hare, Mandela was elected to the Student Representative Council. For some time, the students had been satisfied with the food and the lack of power held by the SRC. During this election, most students voted to boycott unless their demands are met. Alignment with most students, Mandela resigned. Seeing this as an act of insubordination, University Dr. Kerr expelled Mandela for the rest of the year and gave him an ultimatum: He could return to school if he agreed to join the SRC. When Mandela returned home, the regent was furious, saying unequivocally that would have to retract its decision and return to school in the fall.

Mandela's Imprisonment

A few weeks after Mandela returned home, Regent Jongintaba announced that it had arranged a marriage for his adopted son. The regent wanted to make sure Mandela's life was well planned, and the provision was to his right as tribal custom dictated. Shocked by the news, feeling trapped and believing he had no choice but to follow this recent order, Mandela ran away from home. He settled in Johannesburg, where he worked a variety of jobs, including as a guard and an employee, to complete his degree through correspondence courses. Then he enrolled at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg to study law.

Mandela soon became actively involved in the anti-apartheid movement, joining the African National Congress in 1942. Within the ANC, a small group of young Africans joined in, calling the Congress of the African National Youth League. His goal was to transform the ANC into a mass popular movement, deriving strength of millions of peasants and workers who had no voice in the current regime. Specifically, the group believes that the old tactics of polite requests ANC were ineffective. In 1949, the ANC officially adopted methods of boycott, strike, civil disobedience and non-cooperation of the Youth League, with the policy goals of full citizenship, redistribution of land, trade union rights, and free education and compulsory for all children.

For 20 years, Mandela directed peaceful and non-violent acts of defiance against the South African government and its racist policies, including the 1952 Challenge Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He founded the law firm of Mandela and Tambo, in partnership with Oliver Tambo, a brilliant student he had met while attending Fort Hare. The law firm provided free and low-cost unrepresented blacks legal advice.

In 1956, Mandela and 150 others were arrested and charged with treason for their political implications (were eventually acquitted). Meanwhile, the ANC was being challenged by the Africanists, a new generation of black activists who believe that the pacifist method of the ANC was ineffective. They soon Africanists broke away to form the Pan Africanist Congress, which negatively affected the ANC; In 1959, the movement had lost much of its militant support.

In 1961, Mandela, who was previously committed to nonviolent protest, began to believe that armed struggle was the only way to achieve change. Later co-he founded Umkhonto we Sizwe, also known as MK, an armed branch of the ANC dedicated to sabotage and guerrilla warfare tactics against apartheid. In 1961, Mandela organized a three-day strike of national workers. He was arrested for leading the strike the following year, and was sentenced to five years in prison. In 1963, Mandela was brought to trial again. This time, he and 10 other ANC leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment for political offenses, including sabotage.

Nelson Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island for 18 of his 27 years in prison. During this time, he contracted tuberculosis and, as black political prisoner, received the lowest level of treatment of prison officials. However, in prison, Mandela was able to earn a degree in law through a correspondence program at the University of London.

A 1981 memoir by South African intelligence agent Gordon Winter describes a plot by the government of South Africa to host Mandela flight in order to shoot him during recapture; the plan was foiled by British intelligence. Mandela remains a symbol of black resistance so potent that launched a coordinated international campaign for his release, and this international wave of food exemplifies the power and esteem Mandela had on the world political community.

In 1982, Mandela and other ANC leaders were transferred to Pollsmoor prison, supposedly to allow contact between them and the South African government. In 1985, President P. W. Botha offered Mandela's release in exchange for renouncing armed struggle; the prisoner flatly rejected the offer. With increasing local and international pressure for his release, the government participated in several talks with Mandela over the following years, but no deal was made. It was not until Botha suffered a stroke and was replaced by Frederik Willem de Klerk that Mandela's release was finally announced on 11 February 1990. De Klerk also unbanned the ANC, removed restrictions on political groups and suspended executions .

Prison Release and Presidency

Upon his release from prison, Nelson Mandela immediately urged foreign powers not to reduce pressure on the South African government for constitutional reform. While he said he was committed to working for peace, he declared that the ANC's armed struggle would continue until the black majority received the right to vote.

In 1991, Mandela was elected president of the African National Congress, with lifelong friend and colleague Oliver Tambo serve as national president. Mandela continued to negotiate with President F. W. de Klerk to the first multiracial elections. White South Africans were willing to share power, but many black South Africans wanted a complete transfer of energy. The negotiations were often strained and news of violent eruptions, including the assassination of ANC leader Chris Hani, continued throughout the country. Mandela had to maintain a delicate balance of political pressure and intense negotiations amid the demonstrations and armed resistance.

In 1993, Mandela and President de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work towards the dismantling of apartheid. And, due largely to his work, negotiations between blacks and whites in South Africa prevailed: On April 27, 1994, South Africa held its first democratic elections. Nelson Mandela was inaugurated as the first black president of the country on May 10, 1994, at the age of 77, with De Klerk as his first deputy.

Also in 1994, Mandela published an autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, much of which he wrote secretly in prison. The following year, he was awarded the Order of Merit.

From 1994 until June 1999, Mandela worked to carry out the transition from minority rule and apartheid to black majority government. He used the nation's enthusiasm for sports as a turning point to promote reconciliation between whites and blacks, encouraging black South Africans to support the national rugby team ever hated. In 1995, South Africa became the world stage as host of the Rugby World Cup, which brought greater recognition and prestige to the young republic.

Mandela also worked to protect South Africa's economy from collapse during his presidency. Through its Plan for Reconstruction and Development, the South African government funded the creation of jobs, housing and basic health care. In 1996, Mandela promulgated a new constitution for the nation, the establishment of a strong central government based on majority rule, and ensure both the rights of minorities and freedom of expression.

Retirement and Later Career

In the 1999 general elections, Nelson Mandela had retired from active politics. He continued to maintain a busy schedule, however, raising money to build schools and clinics in rural heartland of South Africa through its foundation, and mediates civil war in Burundi. He also published a series of books about his life and struggles between them is no easy road to freedom; Nelson Mandela: The struggle is my life; and favorite African folktales of Nelson Mandela.

Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer in 2001. In June 2004, at the age of 85 years, announced his retirement from formal public life, and returned to his hometown of Qunu.

On July 18, 2007, Mandela convened a group of world leaders, including Graca Machel (whom Mandela married in 1998), Desmond Tutu, Kofi Annan, Ela Bhatt, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Jimmy Carter, Li Zhaoxing, Mary Robinson and Muhammad Yunus, to address some of the most difficult problems in the world. With the aim of working both publicly and privately to find solutions to problems around the world, the group was aptly named "The Elders". impact of the elderly has spread across Asia, Middle East and Africa, and their actions have included the promotion of peace and equality of women, demanding an end to atrocities, and support for initiatives to tackle crises humanitarian and promote democracy.

In addition to advocating peace and equality both nationally and globally, in his later years, Mandela I remained committed to the fight against AIDS, a disease that killed the son of Mandela, Makgatho, in 2005.

Personal Life

Mandela was married three times, starting with Evelyn Ntoko Mase (m. 1944-1957). The couple had four children together: Madiba Thembekile, Makgatho (d 2.005.), Makaziwe and Maki. Mandela married Winnie Madikizela-Mandela in 1958; the couple had two daughters together, Zenani and Zindziswa, before disbanding in 1996. Two years later, Mandela married Graca Machel, with whom he remained until his death in 2013. Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa in 1994, serving until 1999. A symbol of world peace, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.

Death and Legacy

On December 5, 2013, at the age of 95 years, Nelson Mandela died at his home in Johannesburg, South Africa. Zuma issued a statement later that day, in which he spoke of the legacy of Mandela: "Wherever we are in the country, wherever we are in the world, let us reaffirm his vision of a society ... in which none is exploited, oppressed or dispossessed by another, "he said. In the coming decades, Nelson Mandela will remain a source of inspiration for civil rights activists worldwide.

In 2009, Mandela's birthday (July 18) was declared Mandela Day, an international day to promote world peace and celebrate the legacy of South African leader. According to the Center of Memory Nelson Mandela, the annual event is designed to encourage citizens worldwide to turn the way Mandela has all his life. A statement on the Nelson Mandela Center web page memory is read. "Mr. Mandela gave 67 years of struggle for the rights of humanity life All we ask is that everyone gives 67 minutes of their time, either to support their charity or elected to serve their local community. "

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ( founder of Turkey )

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founder of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is the National Hero of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (pronounced [Mustafa Kemal ätäˌtyɾc] 19, May 1881 (conventional) - November 10, 1938) was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey. His surname, Atatürk (meaning "Father of the Turks"), was granted in 1934 and forbidden to any other person by the Turkish Parliament.

Atatürk was an army officer during World War I. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns led to victory in the Turkish War of Independence. Atatürk then embarked on a program of political, economic and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state and secular. Under his leadership, thousands of new schools were built, primary education was compulsory and free, and women were given equal civil and political rights, while the tax burden on farmers was reduced. His government also conducted an extensive policy Turkification. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are known as Kemalism.

Early life

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in the early months of 1881, either in the area of ​​Ahmed Subaşı or a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane street (now Apostolou street Pavlou) in the neighborhood Koca Kasım Pasha in Thessaloniki (Selanik), Ottoman Empire (Thessaloniki in Greece today), to Zübeyde Hanım, a housewife, and Ali Rıza Efendi, an official of the militia, employee title and the timber merchant. Only one of the brothers Mustafa, a sister named Makbule (Atadan) survived childhood; he died in 1956. According to Andrew Mango, his family was Muslim, Turkic-speaking and precariously middle class. His father Ali Rıza is thought to have been ethnic Albanians by some authors; However, according to many more references as Falih Rıfkı Atay, Vamik D. Volkan, Norman Itzkowitz, Mujgan Cunbur, Numan Hasan Kartal and Izzettin Dinamo, Ali Riza ancestors were Turks, ultimately descending from Söke in Aydın Province of Anatolia. His mother Zübeyde is believed to have been of Turkish origin and according to Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, who was Yörük ancestry. Because of the sizable minority of Jews in Selanik during the Ottoman period, many of the Islamist opponents of Atatürk have eagerly claimed that he may have had ancestors Donmeh (Jews who converted to Islam during the Ottoman period). However, his grandparents were not native to Selanik, and his family had moved to this city (the Ottoman Rumelia largest metropolis after Istanbul) in the 19th century, from other provinces of the Ottoman Empire. There are also some suggestions about the possibility of Slavic origin, based on clear skin complexion, blond hair and blue eyes.

Born Mustafa, and his second name Kemal (perfection or meaning maturity) was given by his math teacher, Captain Uskuplu Mustafa Efendi, "in admiration of their ability and maturity," according Afet Inan, and, according to Ali Fuat Cebesoy because his teacher wanted to distinguish his student who had the same name as him, although his biographer Andrew Mango suggests that it may have chosen the name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poet Namık Kemal. In his early years, his mother encouraged Mustafa Kemal to attend a religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the School Efendi Şemsi (a private school with a plan more secular studies) in the direction of his father. His parents wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Mustafa Kemal took the test for admission to the Military School of Thessaloniki (Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in the School Military Monastir. On March 14, 1899, he enrolled at the Ottoman Military Academy in the neighborhood Pangaltı in the district of Sisli, in the (now Istanbul) Ottoman capital of Constantinople and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from the Military College Ottoman in Constantinople on January 11, 1905.

Military career

Early years

Shortly after graduation, he was arrested by the police for their anti-royalists activities. After several months confinement was released only with the support of Riza Pasha, his former school principal. After his release, Mustafa Kemal was assigned to the Fifth Army based in Damascus, as captain of the staff in the company of Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) and Lütfi Müfit (Özdeş). a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by a merchant Mustafa Elvan (Cantekin) called Vatan ve Hürriyet ( "Fatherland and Freedom") joined. On June 20, 1907, he was promoted to the rank of Senior Captain (Kolağası) and October 13, 1907, assigned to the headquarters of the Third Army in Manastır. He joined the Committee of Union and Progress, with membership number 322, although in recent years became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of the policies carried out by the leadership of the CUP. On June 22, 1908, he was appointed Inspector of the Ottoman Railways in Eastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi). In July 1908, he played a role in the Young Turk Revolution which seized power from Sultan Abdul Hamid II and restored the constitutional monarchy.

He was proposing depoliticization in the army, a proposal that was rejected by the leaders of the cup. As a result, he was sent to Tripolitania Vilayet (present Libya, then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908. According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission. the revolt was suppressed and returned to Istanbul in January 1909.

In April 1909 in Istanbul, a group of soldiers began a counter-revolution (See Incident March 31). Mustafa Kemal was instrumental in suprressing revolt.

In 1910 he was called to the Ottoman provinces in Albania. At that time Isa Boletini led Kosovo Albanian uprisings and revolts were in Albania. In 1910 he met the Lord Eqerem Vlora Albania, politician, writer, and one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence of Albania.

Later, in the fall of 1910, he was one of the Ottoman military observers who attended army maneuvers Picardie in France, and in 1911, he served in the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Istanbul for a short time.

Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912)

In 1911, he was assigned to the Roman Tripolitania Vilayet (present Libya) to fight in the Italo-Turkish War, mainly in areas near Benghazi, Derna and Tobruk against a 150,000 troops of the Italian amphibious assault forces. It had to be offset by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks a short time before Italy declared war, a large part of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province of Yemen in order to quell the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with insufficient resources to meet the Italians in Libya; and the British government, which militarily controls the Ottoman provinces of law, Egypt and Sudan from the Orabi uprising in 1882, did not allow the Ottoman government to send additional Ottoman troops to Libya through Egypt; making the Ottoman soldiers like Mustafa Kemal to go to Libya either dressed as Arabs (with the risk of imprisonment if noticed by the British authorities in Egypt), or through very few shuttles available (the Italians, who had the superior naval forces, effective control of the sea lanes of Tripoli). However, despite all the difficulties, the forces of Mustafa Kemal in Libya managed to repel the Italians on several occasions, as the Battle of Tobruk on 22 December 1911. During the Battle of Derna on 16-17 January 1912, while Mustafa Kemal storm the Italian fortress-controlled Kasr-i Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces and a piece of limestone from the rubble of a building damaged entered the left eye of Mustafa Kemal; It is causing permanent damage to the tissue of his left eye, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; He tried to leave the health centers Red Crescent after only two weeks, but when the situation worsened his eye, had to return and resume treatment. On March 6, 1912 Mustafa Kemal became the commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and preserve the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on October 18, 1912. Mustafa Kemal, Enver Bey, Fethi Bey and the other military commanders Ottomans in Libya had to return to Europe after the outbreak Ottoman wars in the Balkans on October 8, 1912, so that the Ottoman government the provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica (now Libya) to the Kingdom of Italy with the Treaty of Ouchy (first Treaty gave Lausanne) signed ten days later, on October 18.

Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

On December 1, 1912, Mustafa Kemal arrived at its new home on the peninsula of Gallipoli and during the First Balkan War, took part in the amphibious landing at Bulair on the coast of Thrace which was commanded by Binbaşı Fethi Bey, but this offensive was repulsed during the battle of Bulair by 7th Infantry Division Georgi Todorov Rila under the command of Stiliyan Kovachev Bulgarian Fourth Army.

In June 1913, during the Second Balkan War, he took part in the forces of the Ottoman Army commanded by kaymakam Enver Bey that Dimetoka and Edirne (Adrianople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire between 1365 and 1453 recovered therefore important historical maximum for the Turks), along with most of eastern Thrace Bulgarians.

In 1913, he was appointed military attache Ottoman to all Balkan states (his office was in Sofia, Bulgaria) and promoted to the rank of kaymakam (Lieutenant Colonel / Colonel) on 1 March 1914.

First World War (1914–1918)

In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the halls of Europe and the Middle East in World War I allies of the central powers. Mustafa Kemal was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to the Fifth Army during the Battle of Gallipoli. Mustafa Kemal became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack and holding his position until he retired. After the Battle of Gallipoli, Mustafa Kemal served in Edirne until 14 January 1916. Subsequently, he was assigned to command the body XVI of the Second Army and sent to the Caucasus Campaign after the massive offensive Russian had reached the cities key Anatolia. On 7 August, Mustafa Kemal rallied his troops and mounted a counteroffensive. Two of his divisions captured Bitlis and Mus disturb the calculations of the Russian command.

After this victory, the CUP government in Constantinople proposed the creation of a new army in Hejaz (Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi) and appoint Mustafa Kemal at his command, but the proposal and this army was never established refused. Instead, on March 7, 1917, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was promoted from the command of the corps XVI to the general command of the Second Army, despite the armies of the Czar were quickly removed when the Russian Revolution erupted.

In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of the Seventh Army, replacing Fevzi Pasha on August 7, 1917, which was under the command of Yildirim Group Army of Erich von General Falkenhayn German (after British forces General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders, who became the new commander of the Army Group Yildirim in early 1918.) Mustafa Kemal Pasha could not get along with General von Falkenhayn and together with Miralay Ismet Bey, wrote a report to the Grand vizier Talaat Pasha about the grim situation and the lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front; but Talat Pasha ignored their observations and rejected his suggestion to form a stronger north defensive line in Ottoman Syria (in parts of the Vilayet Beirut, Damascus and Aleppo Vilayet Vilayet), with Turkish rather than German command. After the rejection of his report, Mustafa Kemal resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople. There, he was assigned the task of accompanying the crown prince (Sultan and future) Mehmed Vahideddin during his train trip to Austria-Hungary and Germany. While in Germany, Mustafa Kemal visited the German lines in the west European front and concluded that the Central Powers would soon lose the war. He does not hesitate to openly express this view Kaiser Wilhelm II and his senior generals in person. During the return trip, he briefly stayed in Karlsbad and Vienna for medical treatment.

When Mehmed VI became the new sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Mustafa Kemal Pasha to Constantinople, and in August 1918 was assigned the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine. Mustafa Kemal arrived in Aleppo on August 26, 1918, then continued south to his headquarters in Nablus. The Seventh army held the central sector of the front line. On September 19, at the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo, the Eighth Army held the coastal flank, but collapsed and Liman Pasha ordered the Seventh Army to retreat northward in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelope to the Jordan river. The seventh army retreated to the Jordan River, but was destroyed by British aerial bombardment during their withdrawal from Nablus on 21 September 1918. However, Mustafa Kemal managed to form a defensive line north of Aleppo. According to Lord Kinross, Mustafa Kemal was the only general of Turkey in the war that never suffered a defeat.

Mudros the armistice was signed on 30 October 1918 and were granted all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire long enough to retire. On October 31, he was appointed to the command of Army Group Yildirim, replacing Liman von Sanders. He organized the distribution of arms to civilians in Antep in case of a conflict of defense against invading allies.

last active service Mustafa Kemal Pasha in the Ottoman army was organizing the return of the troops left behind south of this line. In early November 1918, Army Group Yildirim was officially dissolved and Mustafa Kemal returned to occupied Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918. During a period he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919 along the lines set the partition of the Ottoman Empire, the allies (British forces Greek, Italian, French and) occupied Anatolia. The occupation of Constantinople, which was followed by the occupation of Smyrna (the two largest cities in the Ottoman period) led to the creation of the National Movement of Turkey and the Turkish War of Independence.

Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922)

Aide-i Honorary Hazrat Shahriar ( "Honorary adjutant of His Majesty the Sultan") Mirliva Mustafa Kemal Pasha was assigned as the inspector of the troops of the Ninth Army Inspection to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security 30 April 1919 on 19 May 1919 reached Samsun. His first objective was the creation of a national movement organized against the occupation forces. In June 1919, he issued the Amasya Circular, declaring the country's independence was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July and the Ottoman government issued an arrest feelings. Later, he was sentenced to death.

On September 4, 1919, a congress met in Sivas. Those who opposed the Allies in several provinces of Turkey issued a statement called Misak-i Milli ( "National Pact"). Mustafa Kemal was appointed as the head of the executive committee of the congress. This gave Mustafa Kemal the feeling of legitimacy needed for future policy. (See Sivas Congress).

The last election to the Ottoman parliament in December 1919 gave an overwhelming majority of the candidates of the "Association for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia (Anatolia and Rumelia Defence of Rights Society)", directed by Mustafa Kemal , which he held in Ankara. The fourth (and last) term of Parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was broken up by British forces on March 18, 1920, shortly after it has adopted the National Pact ( "Pacte National"). Mustafa Kemal called for a national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Ankara - the "Grand National Assembly" (GNA). On April 23, 1920, the GNA opened with Mustafa Kemal as the speaker; this law effectively created the situation of diarchy in the country.

On August 10, 1920, the Ottoman Grand Vizier Damat Ferid Pasha signed the Treaty of Sevres, finalizing plans for the partition of the Ottoman Empire, including the regions that Turkish nationals saw their heart. Mustafa Kemal insisted on complete independence of the country and safeguarding the interests of the Turkish majority in "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a national army. The Army GN faced the Caliphate army buttressed by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting Armenian forces on the Eastern Front and the Greek forces advancing east of Smyrna (now Istanbul) who had occupied in May 1919 on the Western front. In January 1920, Mustafa Kemal feelings troops moved in Marash, Marash where the battle occurred against the French Armenian Legion. The battle with drafts in the Turkish victory in the Armenian massacres 5.000 to 12.000 will cause the disappearance of the Armenian population remaining in the region.

The army GNA unconditionally against the Democratic Republic of Armenia in the fall of 1920 and later against the Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and arms to the Kemalist Russian Bolshevik government from the autumn of 1920.

After a series of battles during the Greco-Turkish War, the Greek army advanced to the Sakarya River, just eighty kilometers west of the GNA. On August 5, 1921, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to commander in chief of the forces by the GNA. The ensuing Battle of Sakarya was fought from 23 August to 13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, the September 19, 1921, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was given by the Grand National Assembly the rank of Marshal and the title of Ghazi. The Allies, ignoring the extension unconditionally Kemal, they expected to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace agreement in Ankara, but the proposal was rejected. In August 1922, John launched a frontal attack on the Greek lines at Afyonkarahisar in the Battle of Dumlupınar and Turkish forces regained control of Smyrna on 9 September 1922. On 10 September 1922, Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to the League of Nations saying that the Turkish population was so upset that the Ankara government would not be responsible for killings.

Personal life

Mustafa Kemal's name is associated with four women: Eleni Krintte, mind lady, Dimitri Kovacheva and Latif Uşaklıgil. Little is known of the relationship of Mustafa Kemal with Eleni, who fell in love with him while he was a student in Bitola, Macedonia (monastery in Turkish), but the relationship inspired a play by the Macedonian writer Dejan Dukovski, then filmed by Aleksandar Popovski. Fikriye was a cousin of Mustafa Kemal nominal, though not related by blood (the daughter of the sister of his stepfather Ragip Bey). Fikriye grew passionately attached to Mustafa Kemal; we are not sure of the extent of the feeling of feelings for her, but the truth is that bec were very close after the mind of each former Egyptian husband and returned to Istanbul; during the War of Independence, who lived with him in Çankaya, Ankara feels like a personal assistant. However, after the Turkish army entered Izmir in 1922, Mustafa Kemal Latife met while staying at the home of each parent, the shipping magnate Muammar Uşakiza (later Usak). Latifa fell in love with Mustafa Kemal; again we do not know the extent to which this was reciprocated, but certainly I was impressed by the intellect of Latifa: He was a graduate of the Sorbonne and was studying İngilizce in London when war broke out. On January 29, 1923 they married. Latifa was jealous of mind and demanded that he leave the house in Çankaya; Devastated and left immediately to mind was in a car. According to official reports, a shot with a gun around Mustafa Kemal was given as a gift stuck; However, there were rumors that she was murdered. Mustafa Kemal triangle, mind and Latif bec the subject of a manuscript of the feeling of a close friend, Saleh Bozoklar which remained unpublished until 2005. Latifa was briefly and literally the face of the new Turkish woman, appear in public in clothing West with her husband. However, their marriage was not happy; frequent discussions after they divorced on August 5, 1925.

During a sense of life, Ataturk adopted thirteen children: a boy and twelve girls. Of these, the most famous is the Ataturk, Turkey's first pilot and fighter pilot first woman in the world.

Illness and death

During 1937, indications that the worsening health of Atatürk began to appear. In early 1938, while on a trip to Yalova, who suffered from a serious illness. He went to Istanbul for treatment, where he was diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver. During his stay in Istanbul, he made an effort to keep up with their normal lifestyle for a while. He died on November 10, 1938, at the age of 57, in the Dolmabahce Palace, where he spent his last days. The clock in the room where he died is still set at the time of his death, 9:05 am.

Atatürk's funeral caused so much pain and pride in Turkey and 17 countries sent special representatives, while nine armed detachments contributed to courtship. The remains of Mustafa Kemal were originally established to rest in the Ethnographic Museum in Ankara, and transferred on 10 November 1953, 15 years after his death in a sarcophagus of 42 tonnes to a mausoleum overlooking Ankara, Anıtkabir.

In his will, Atatürk donated all his possessions to the Republican People's Party, provided that the annual interest of their funds would be used to care for her sister Makbule and their adopted children,and fund the higher education of the children of İsmet İnönü. The remainder of this yearly interest was willed to the Turkish Language Association and the Turkish Historical Society.

Mahatma Gandhi ( founder of India )

Mahatma Gandhi was the founder of India. Mahatma Gandhi is the National Hero of India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as 'Mahatma' (meaning 'great soul') was born in Porbandar, Gujarat, in northwestern India, October 2, 1869, into a Hindu family Modh. His father was the chief minister of Porbandar, and religious devotion of his mother meant that his upbringing was infused with the Jain pacifist teachings of mutual tolerance, not harm living beings and vegetarianism.

Born into a privileged caste, Gandhi was fortunate to receive a comprehensive education, but proved a mediocre student. In 1883 May 13, Kasturba Gandhi married Makhanji, a girl of 13 years also, through the provision of their parents, as usual in India. After its entry into Samaldas College, University of Bombay, she gave the first of four children, in 1888. Gandhi was unhappy at college, following the wishes of his father to take the bar, and when he was offered the opportunity to advance their studies abroad at University College London, 18, who accepted with alacrity, starting there in September 1888.

Determined to adhere to Hindu principles, including vegetarianism as well as alcohol and sexual abstinence, he found restrictive at first London, but once he had found kindred spirits who flourished, and pursued the philosophical study of religions, including Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and others, he is having professed no particular interest in religion before. After admission to the English bar, and his return to India, he found it difficult to get work and, in 1893, accepted a one-year contract to work for an Indian company in Natal, South Africa.

Although it is not yet enshrined in law, the system of "apartheid" was much more evident in South Africa in the early 20th century Despite arriving in the one-year contract, Gandhi spent the next 21 years living in South Africa, and he railed against the injustice of racial segregation. On one occasion he was thrown from a first class train car, despite being in possession of a valid ticket. It witness the suffering racial polarization by his countrymen he served as catalyst for his activism later, and he tried to fight segregation at all levels. He founded a political movement, known as the Natal Indian Congress, and developed his theoretical belief in nonviolent civil protest in a tangible political stance, when he opposed the introduction of registration for all Indians in South Africa, through of non-cooperation with the relevant civil authorities.

On his return to India in 1916, Gandhi developed his practice of nonviolent civil disobedience even more awareness of the oppressive practices in Bihar in 1918, which saw local people oppressed by their largely British masters. He also encouraged the oppressed villagers to improve their own circumstances, leading strikes and peaceful protests. His fame spread and became widely referred to as "Mahatma" or "Great Soul '.

As his fame spread, so his political influence increased: in 1921 was addressing the National Congress of India, and the reorganization of the party constitution around the principle of 'Swaraj', or complete political independence of the British. He also promoted a boycott of products and British institutions, and promotion of mass civil disobedience led to his arrest on March 10, 1922, and trial on charges of sedition, for which he served two years of a sentence of 6 years in prison.

The National Congress of India began to splinter during his incarceration, and remained largely out of the public eye after his release from prison in February 1924, returning four years later, in 1928, to campaign for the award of 'dominion status' to India by the British. When the British introduced a tax on salt in 1930, his famous led a march of 250 miles from the sea to collect their own salt. Recognizing their political influence at the national level, the British authorities were forced to negotiate various agreements signed with Gandhi over the next few years, which resulted in the reduction of poverty, he granted the status of "untouchables" rights consecrated for women, and inexorably led to the goal of Gandhi's 'Swaraj': political independence from Britain.

Gandhi suffered six attempted murder known in the course of his life. The first attempt was on June 25, 1934, when he was in Pune to make a speech, along with his wife, Kasturba. Traveling in a convoy of two cars, which were in the second car, which was delayed by the appearance of a train at a level crossing, causing the two vehicles separate. When the first vehicle arrived at the headquarters of speech, a bomb was thrown into the vehicle, which exploded and injured several people. No investigations were carried out at the time, and no arrests, although many attribute the attack to Nathuram Godse an implacably opposed to nonviolent acceptance of Gandhi and tolerance of all religions Hindu fundamentalist, who felt threatened the supremacy of the Hindu religion. Godse was responsible for the eventual assassination of Gandhi in January 1948, 14 years later.

During the early years of World War II, the mission of Gandhi to achieve independence from Britain reached its zenith: he saw no reason why the Indians should fight for British sovereignty, in other parts of the world, when they were subjected in the country, which led to the worst cases of civil uprising under his direction through movement of the 'Quit India'. As a result, he was arrested on August 9, 1942, and held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. In February 1944, three months before his release, his wife Kasturbai died in the same prison.

May 1944, the time of his release from prison, was the second attempt on his life, this time certainly led by Nathuram Godse, although the attempt was pretty unenthusiastic. When the news reached Godse Gandhi was staying in a hill station near Pune, recovering from his ordeal prison, a group of like-minded people who descended on the area was organized, and a voice of protest anti-Gandhi is mounted. When he is invited to speak to Gandhi, Godse declined, but attended a prayer meeting later that day, where he rushed towards Gandhi, brandishing a knife and shouting anti-Gandhi slogans. He was quickly dominated by brothers in faith, and went nowhere close to achieving their goal. Godse was not prosecuted at the time.

Four months later, in September 1944, Godse led a group of protesters Hindu activists approached Gandhi in a train station, on his return from the political talks. Godse was again found to be in possession of a dagger, although not drawn, is supposed to be the means by which we would try to assassinate Gandhi. It is officially regarded as the third assassination attempt by the commission set up to investigate the death of Gandhi in 1948.

The British plan to divide what had been British-ruled India, Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India, was vehemently opposed by Gandhi, who foresaw the problems that would arise from the division. However, the Congress Party ignored their concerns, and accepted the proposals made by the British partition.

The fourth attempt on the life of Gandhi took the form of a train derailment planned. On June 29, 1946, a train called the "Special Gandhi ', he and his entourage embodiment, derailed near Bombay, through boulders that had been piled up on the slopes. From the train was the only scheduled then it seems likely that the intended target of derailment was Gandhi himself I was not injured in the accident in a prayer meeting after the event Gandhi is quoted as saying..:

"I have not hurt anyone nor do I consider anybody to be my enemy, I can not understand why there are so many attempts on my life's attempt yesterday in my life failed not going to die yet;.. My goal is to live up to the age 125. "

Unfortunately, only eighteen months.

Under increasing pressure from his political contemporaries, to accept the partition as the only way to avoid civil war in India, poor Gandhi wins agreed with his political necessity, and India celebrated its Independence Day 15 August 1947. Fully recognizing the need for political unity, Gandhi spent the next months working tirelessly for peace between Hindus and Muslims, fearing accumulation of animosity between the two fledgling states, showing remarkable prescience, given the turbulence of their relationship over the next half century.

Unfortunately, his efforts to unite opposition forces proved their undoing. He defended the payment of restitution to Pakistan for the lost territories, as indicated in sharing agreement, the parties of India, Pakistan, fearing that it would use the payment as a means to build an arsenal of war, had opposed. He began a fast in support of the payment, the Hindu radicals, Nathuram Godse among them, seen as traitors. When the political effect of its insured quick payment to Pakistan, thereby ensuring the fifth attempt on his life.

On January 20 a group of seven Hindu radicals, including Nathuram Godse, gained access to Birla House in New Delhi, a place where Gandhi was due to give an address. One of the men, Madanla Pahwa, gained access to the speaker's podium, and planted a bomb, contained in a cotton ball on the wall behind the podium. The plan was to detonate the bomb during the speech, cause chaos, which would give two other band members, Digambar Bagde and Kishtaiyya Shankar, an opportunity to shoot Gandhi, and escape in the chaos. The bomb exploded prematurely, before the conference was underway, and Madanla Pahwa was captured, while others, including Godse, managed to escape.

Pahwa admitted the plot during interrogations, but the Delhi police were unable to confirm the participation and whereabouts of Godse, although he tried to establish his whereabouts through the Bombay police.

After the failed attempt to Birla House, Nathuram Godse and another of the seven, Narayan Apte, returned to Pune, via Bombay, where they bought a Beretta automatic pistol, before returning back to Delhi.

On January 30, 1948, while Gandhi was addressing a prayer meeting at Birla House in New Delhi, Nathuram Godse managed to get close enough to him in the crowd to be able to shoot him three times in the chest at point blank range. Gandhi's last words were claimed to be "The Ram", which translates as "Oh God", although some witnesses claim he spoke no word at all.

When news of the death of Gandhi came to the various strengths of Hindu radicalism, in Pune and other areas across India, there was reputedly celebration in the streets. Publicly distributed sweets, like a festival. The rest of the world was shocked by the death of a nominated five times for the Nobel Peace Prize man.

Godse, who had made no attempt to flee after the murder, and his co-conspirator Narayan Apte, both were jailed until his trial on 8 November 1949. They were convicted of the death of Gandhi, and both were executed, a week later, at Ambala jail on 15 November 1949. the alleged architect of the plot, a Hindu extremist named Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, was acquitted for lack of evidence.

Gandhi was cremated according to Hindu custom, and his ashes were buried in the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune, the place of his imprisonment in 1942, and where his wife had also died.

Gandhi memorial bears the heading "RAM" ( "Oh God"), although there is no conclusive evidence that he uttered these words before death.

Although Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times, he never received. In the year of his death, 1948, the prize was declared void, the reason given being that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year.